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When the word tipi is mentioned, most Americans bring to mind a picture of the traditional housing structure of the American Plains Indians. Even though the tipi, pueblo and other American Indian architecture is a symbol of America itself, how much do we really know about the structures that early American Indians chose to create and live in? The variety of dwellings is huge, but many are unaware of their diversity and usefulness.
During this exhibit we will explore the science behind some American Indian dwellings from Koolas to Tipis to Tule Huts. We will explore this topic from an architectural point of view, understanding that architecture is not strictly scientific but also is affected by economics, technology, social customs, religion, the environment, aesthetics, etc. Even though American Indian cultures are incredibly rich and varied, we will concentrate primarily on the science behind their unique dwelling designs.

You and your students will:

To help you apply the California Science Framework (1990), we have written the key words, or "big ideas," in boldface.

Note: As varied and diverse as American Indian culture is, we could not possibly cover it all adequately within the scope of this one exhibition. Our fo

The basic purpose of any shelter is to provide protection from the climate, whether it is hot or cold. Architects design all dwellings, historic and modern, to conserve energy. American Indians do this as well. For example, the Pueblo Indians of the southwest built homes of clay, rocks and plant materials (some still do). These adobe homes soaked up the sun's energy during the day, while keeping the inside cool and shaded, and then radiated the heat into the rooms at night. The Plains Indians tipis, in their varied forms, were adjustable to accommodate the weather. In cold weather, the tipis' walls had two layers of buffalo skins with grass or moss stuffed between the layers in order to provide more insulation, and the bottom of the outside skin was buried in the snow. In warm weather, the American Indians lifted the skins up from the ground to allow breezes to flow through the tipi. On the hottest days, the inhabitants pulled off the skins almost entirely so that the tipi provided only shade.

Another important source of energy for the American Indians was fire. They used fire to cook their meals, warm their homes, aid in their artistic and religious endeavors, etc. Many times the main hearth was inside of their dwelling. Because of the smoke, American Indian architects had to consider ventilation patterns to provide adequate ventilation of their dwellings. (This still must be considered today.) All dwellings in which fires were built had smoke holes of some sort, and most American Indians put their firepits in the center of their dwelling to ensure the most efficient heating and dissipation of smoke. The Chippewa, a tribe from the Great Lakes region, built dwellings called wigwams, dome shaped structures made of maple or ironwood saplings and elm, cedar or basswood bark. The floor of the Chippewa wigwam consisted of large stones covered with moss and straw mats. The fire for the wigwam was built into a recess in the floor which heated the rocks that provided warmth for the wigwam after the fire died.

What other factors affected American Indian architectural design?

Responding to the climate was not the only motivating force behind American Indian architecture. Technology, economics, social organization, religion and history all played important roles in how, where, when and why structures were built. For example, the materials in their environment certainly influenced their building techniques. But American Indian dwellings were incredibly varied. They were domical in form (wigwam, wikiup, tule hut, hogan), conical in form (tipi, earthlodge, pit house), and rectilinear in form (chickee, longhouse, pueblo, plank house). They had bent frames (wigwam, wikiup, grass house), post and beam frames (lean-to, plank house, long house, earthlodge) and compression frames (pueblo, tipi, hogan). The tribe's social organization would determine where, how, when and by whom the dwellings were built. For instance, in some tribes, building the houses was the duty of the women. In other tribes, this duty was shared, whereas in still others, men were primarily responsible for building dwellings. American Indian architecture was directed beyond merely meeting the most basic needs of survival, most tribes expended additional energy to build dwellings which they used exclusively for ceremonial purposes. Further, many tribes decorated their dwellings quite elaborately.

The most important and obvious change occuring with American Indian dwellings was a seasonal change. Most tribes were, at least, semi-nomadic. This means that they moved from place to place often following herds of prey animals. Because they changed locations, they also had to move their houses. Some tribes, like the Plains Indians, moved their homes with them. Others, such as many Northwest tribes, moved out of more permanent winter homes on the coast, to very temporary summer homes in the mountains.

However, just as Euro-American architecture has evolved over time, so has American Indian architecture. One of the most notable examples is that of the Pueblo Indians and their ancestors, the Anasazi. Anthropologists believe that the Anasazi originally lived in pit houses, semi-subterranean dwellings with roofs made of natural materials. Eventually, the Anasazi moved from the pit houses to adobe houses built above ground and often in large niches in cliffs. Remnants of the zenith of Anasazi architecture are located in Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico. Chaco contains four large, apartment-like structures, the largest of which is called Pueblo Bonito. Pueblo Bonito contains over 800 rooms and 37 kivas (religious rooms). It is four stories tall at the rear and covers nearly two acres of land.

The starred (*) activities are recommended pre-visit activities.

Action Inspire students to design a dwelling. Give some direction for their ideas. For example, suggest they design a dwelling for a certain place like their hometown, the Arctic or the moon. Encourage them to think fully about the environment. What is it like? Are there different seasons? What materials are available? Or allow them to come up with their own environment, but encourage them to describe the environment they choose so that they can design their dwelling with appropriate adaptations. Share their ideas verbally with their classmates. Discuss why they designed their dwelling the way they did. What are the dwelling's adaptations to the environment?

Material (Could require a variety of materials--see below)

Action This activity is an extension of "Design-a-Dwelling." After the student has designed his/her dwelling, build a model of it. Models can be very small (like a doll house) or nearly life-size. Perhaps the class could work together on a few models which are chosen by a silent vote. This can be a very challenging activity because of the difficulties in converting a two- dimensional concept into a three-dimensional entity. Again, encourage sharing and group work so that the children can learn from each other.

Mind

Material None.

This is a brainstorming activity that can be done in small groups or as a class. Ask your students the question, "What makes your home comfortable to you?" Encourage the students to consider the advantages and disadvantages of modern homes. Why are they built the way they are built? Why is the main entrance in the front? Why do we build only one and two story homes for the most part? Why are they "squarish" and not "roundish?" Why are they painted?

Mind

Action

• Collect as many pictures as possible of different American Indian dwellings.
• Discuss how the types of dwellings were affected by where the
• people lived. American Indians lived all over the United States and Canada.
• What is the climate like in various locations around North America?
• Are there forests, prairies, or deserts?
• Did the tribe move around a lot?

For older grades, this could be an individual or small group project. The resource list includes several books that would be useful in this activity.

Mind

Choose and/or modify words or definitions to fit your needs and grade level.

(By no means an exhaustive list)

Nabokov, P. and Easton, R. (1989) Native American Architecture. New York: Oxford University Press.
This book is absolutely fantastic! Tons of pictures and lots of good information.

Rapoport, A. (1969)House Form and Culture. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
A simple, short paperback book on the basics of culture and architecture.
Strutevant, William C., ed. (1978) Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institute.
The definitive resource in several volumes.
Wolfson, Evelyn. (1988) From Abenaki to Zuni: A Dictionary of Native American Tribes. NY: Walker & Company.
Gives basic information such as meaning of tribe name, cultural area, location, dwelling type, clothing material, transportation, and food of 68 tribes. Other books by the author include tools, ornaments, utensils, houses.
The following is a list of references compiled over several years at Explorit! All these books cover American Indian topics but are more peripheral to the subject of architecture.

Caduto, Michael and Joseph Bruchac. (1989) Keepers of the Earth: Native American Stories and Environmental Activities for Children. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Inc..
A wonderful book that mixes the science of everyday life with the beliefs and culture of Native American tribes.
Fisher, Anne B. (1957) Stories California Indians Told. Berkeley, CA: Parnassus Press.
Stories of various groups including Patwin neighbors Miwok, Pomo, and Yokuts.
Freedman, Russel. (1988) Buffalo Hunt. New York: Holiday House, Inc.
The story of the Plains Indians' relationship with the buffalo. Illustrated with art from the mid-1800s.
Freedman, Russel. (1987) Indian Chiefs. New York: Holiday House, Inc.
Stories of six Plains chiefs who led their people in a historic moment of crisis. Illustrated with photos.
Goble, Paul. (1984) Buffalo Woman. Scarsdale, NY: Bradbury Press.
A Plains Indian legend. Look also for other books by the same author.
Haseley, Dennis. (1983) The Scared One. New York: Frederick Warne.
A story of a modern day Native American boy.
Jones, Hettie. (1974) Coyote Tales. San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Four stories involving the Coyote character in different roles.
Meyer, Kathleen Allen. (1980) Ishi: The Story of an American Indian. Minneapolis, MN: Dillon Press.
The story of a man who was the last survivor of his tribe, Yuni of the Lassen area of California.
Scheer, George F., ed. (1968) Cherokee Animal Tales. New York: Holiday House, Inc.
The introduction includes a history of the Cherokee and their struggle with the U.S. government to find a place of their own.

Balls, Edward K. (1962) Early Uses of California Plants. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
A small book with lots of information.
Bean, Lowell John and Sylvia Brakke Vane. (1991) California Indians: Primary Resources. Novato, CA: Ballena Press.
This book is a must for all teachers teaching about California Indians. The subtitle of this book is A Guide to Manuscripts, Artifacts, Documents, Serials, Music and Illustrations, and it means it.
California Indian Resource Guide. (1991) Lowie Museum of Anthropology.
This was just published with fourth grade teachers in mind. It lists field trip sites, organizations which rent/loan materials to teachers, a bibliography of books for adults and children and native speakers who often give classroom presentations. For a free copy contact Martha Muhs, Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University of California, 103 Kroeber Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720. Phone:415-642-3681.
Heizer, R.F. and Elsasser, A.B. (1980) The Natural World of the California Indians. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Compact, information-packed about many of the native tribes of California.
Knudtson, Peter M. (1977) The Wintun Indians of California and Their Neighbors. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers, Inc.
About members of the Patwin linguistic family. This book is for sale at the California Indian Museum in Sacramento.
Margolin, Malcolm. The Ohlone Way. Heyday Press.
Margolin, Malcolm. The Way We Lived. Heyday Press.
These two readable books by Margolin are about the Native Americans of San Francisco, the east bay and coastal areas. Good illustrations.
Niethammer, Carolyn. (1974) American Indian Food and Lore. New York: Collier Books.
150 authentic recipes including a couple for acorns, and lots of information about the plants and their uses by Native Americans.
News from Native California.
A very good quarterly newsletter, cost $15/year. It includes interesting stories and information as well as an extensive calendar of events and exhibits state wide. Call (415) 848-3423 to subscribe.
Other materials:
Pacific Western Traders, (916) 985-3851; 305 Wool Street, Folsom, CA 95630
This store carries tapes of Native American songs and stories, artifacts, etc. A price list is available by mail or phone.
Science For Children: Resources for Teachers. (1988) National Science Resources Center. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press.
Fantastic sourcebook for teachers containing curriculum, book and location resource references.

© 1992, Explorit Science Center